Reading section 33

[Footnote 643: [Chinese: ]. An important minister and apparently a man of talent but of ungovernable and changeable temper. In 639 he obtained the Emperor's leave to become a priest but soon left his monastery. The Emperor ordered him to be canonized under the name Pure but Narrow. Giles, _Biog. Dict._ 722. The monk Fa-Lin [Chinese: ] also attacked the views of Fu I in two treatises which have been incorporated in the Chinese Tripitaka. See Nanjio, Cat. Nos. 1500, 1501.]

[Footnote 644: Subsequently a story grew up that his soul had visited hell during a prolonged fainting fit after which he recovered and became a devout Buddhist. See chap. XI of the Romance called Hsi-yu-chi, a fantastic travesty of Hsüan Chuang's travels, and Wieger, _Textes Historiques_, p. 1585.]

[Footnote 645: [Chinese: ]. This name has been transliterated in an extraordinary number of ways. See _B.E.F.E.O._ 1905, pp. 424-430. Giles gives Hsüan Chuang in his _Chinese Dictionary_, but Hsüan Tsang in his _Biographical Dictionary_. Probably the latter is more correct. Not only is the pronunciation of the characters variable, but the character [Chinese: ] was tabooed as being part of the Emperor K'ang Hsi's personal name and [Chinese: ] substituted for it. Hence the spelling Yüan Chuang.]

[Footnote 646: [Chinese: ]. See Vincent Smith, _Early History of India_, pp. 326-327, and Giles, _Biog. Dict._, _s.v._ Wang Hsüan-T'sê. This worthy appears to have gone to India again in 657 to offer robes at the holy places.]

[Footnote 647: [Chinese: ] Some of the principal statues in the caves of Lung-men were made at her expense, but other parts of these caves seem to date from at least 500 A.D. Chavannes, _Mission Archéol._ tome I, deuxième partie.]

[Footnote 648: [Chinese: ]. Ta-Yün-Ching. See _J.A._ 1913, p. 149. The late Dowager Empress also was fond of masquerading as Kuan-yin but it does not appear that the performance was meant to be taken seriously.]

[Footnote 649: "That romantic Chinese reign of Genso (713-756) which is the real absolute culmination of Chinese genius." Fenollosa, _Epochs of Chinese and Japanese art_ I. 102.]

[Footnote 650: [Chinese: ], [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 651: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 652: [Chinese: ] The meaning of this name appears to vary at different times. At this period it is probably equivalent to Kapisa or N.E. Afghanistan.]

[Footnote 653: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 654: See _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, p. 161. This does not exclude the possibility of an opposite current, _viz._ Chinese Buddhism flowing into Burma.]

[Footnote 655: Wu-Tsung, 841-847.]

[Footnote 656: "Liu-Tsung-Yuan has left behind him much that for purity of style and felicity of expression has rarely been surpassed," Giles, _Chinese Literature_, p. 191.]

[Footnote 657: Apparently in 783 A.D. See Waddell's articles on Ancient Historical Edicts at Lhasa in _J.R.A.S._ 1909, 1910, 1911.]

[Footnote 658: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 659: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 660: See Eitel, _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_, p. 185 _s.v._ Ullambana, a somewhat doubtful word, apparently rendered into Chinese as Yü-lan-p'ên.]

[Footnote 661: Sec Nanjio Catalogue, pp. 445-448.]

[Footnote 662: He is also said to have introduced the images of the Four Kings which are now found in every temple. A portrait of him by Li Chien is reproduced in Tajima's _Masterpieces_, vol. viii, plate ix. The artist was perhaps his contemporary.]

[Footnote 663: _E.g._ Sacki, _The Nestorian Monument in China_, 1916. See also above, p. 217.]

[Footnote 664: See Khuddaka-Patha, 7; Peta Vatthu, 1, 5 and the commentary; Milinda Panha, iv. 8, 29; and for modern practices my chapter on Siam, and Copleston, _Buddhism_, p. 445.]

[Footnote 665: [Chinese: ] Some native critics, however, have doubted the authenticity of the received text and the version inserted in the Official History seems to be a summary. See Wieger, _Textes Historiques_, vol. iii. pp. 1726 ff., and Giles, _Chinese Literature_, pp. 200 ff.]

[Footnote 666: The officials whose duty it was to remonstrate with the Emperor if he acted wrongly.]

[Footnote 667: Giles, _Chinese Literature_, pp. 201, 202--somewhat abbreviated.]

[Footnote 668: See Wieger, _Textes Historiques_, vol. III. pp. 1744 ff.]

[Footnote 669: "Thousands of ten-thousands of Ch'ing." A Ch'ing = 15.13 acres.]

[Footnote 670: Presumably similar to the temple slaves of Camboja, etc.]

[Footnote 671: One Emperor of this epoch, Shih-Tsung of the later Chou dynasty, suppressed monasteries and coined bronze images into currency, declaring that Buddha, who in so many births had sacrificed himself for mankind, would have no objection to his statues being made useful. But in the South Buddhism nourished in the province of Fukien under the princes of Min [Chinese: ] and the dynasty which called itself Southern T'ang.]

[Footnote 672: [Chinese: ] See Kokka No. 309, 1916.]

[Footnote 673: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 674: The decrease in translations is natural for by this time Chinese versions had been made of most works which had any claim to be translated.]

[Footnote 675: See Biot, _L'instruction publique en Chine_, p. 350.]

[Footnote 676: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 677: See Le Gall, _Variétés Sinologiques_, No. 6 Tchou-Hi: Sa doctrine Son influence. Shanghai, 1894, pp. 90, 122.]

[Footnote 678: [Chinese: ]. Compare the similar doctrines of Wang Yang-Ming.]

[Footnote 679: _E.g._ his elder brother Mangku who showed favour to Buddhists, Mohammedans and Nestorians alike. He himself wished to obtain Christian teachers from the Pope, by the help of Marco Polo, but probably merely from curiosity.]

[Footnote 680: More accurately hPhags-pa. It is a title rather than a name, being the Tibetan equivalent of Arya. Khubilai seems to be the correct transcription of the Emperor's name. The Tibetan and Chinese transcriptions are Hvopilai and Hu-pi-lieh.]

[Footnote 681: For this curious work see _B.E.F.E.O._ 1908, p. 515, and _J.A._ 1913, I, pp. 116-132. For the destruction of Taoist books see Chavannes in _T'oung Pao_, 1904, p. 366.]

[Footnote 682: At the present day an ordinary Chinese regards a Lama as quite different from a Hoshang or Buddhist monk.]

[Footnote 683: The Yüan Emperors were no doubt fond of witnessing religious theatricals in the Palace. See for extracts from Chinese authors, _New China Review_, 1919, pp. 68 ff. Compare the performances of the T'ang Emperor Su Tsung mentioned above.]

[Footnote 684: For the ecclesiastical abuses of the time see Köppen, II. 103, and de Mailla, _Histoire de la Chine_, IX. 475, 538.]

[Footnote 685: See Wieger, _Textes Historiques_, III. p. 2013, and De Groot, _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China_, I. p. 82. He is often called Hung Wu which is strictly speaking the title of his reign. He was certainly capable of changing his mind, for he degraded Mencius from his position in Confucian temples one year and restored him the next.]

[Footnote 686: See de Mailla, _Histoire de la Chine_, IX. p. 470.]

[Footnote 687: Often called Yung-Lo which is strictly the title of his reign.]

[Footnote 688: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 689: See Nanjio, Cat. 1613-16.]

[Footnote 690: See Beal, _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures_, p. 398. The Emperor says: "So we, the Ruler of the Empire ... do hereby bring before men a mode for attaining to the condition of supreme Wisdom. We therefore earnestly exhort all men ... carefully to study the directions of this work and faithfully to follow them."]

[Footnote 691: Nanjio, Cat. 1620. See also _ib._ 1032 and 1657 for the Empress's sûtra.]

[Footnote 692: Or Kalima [Chinese: ] In Tibetan Karma de bshin gshegs-pa. He was the fifth head of the Karma-pa school. See Chandra Das's dictionary, _s.v._, where a reference is given to kLong-rdol-gsung-hbum. It is noticeable that the Karma-pa is one of the older and more Tantric sects.]

[Footnote 693: [Chinese: ], [Chinese: ]. Yüan Shih K'ai prefixed to this latter the four characters [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 694: See Yule, _Cathay and the Way Thither_, pp. 75 ff.]

[Footnote 695: When Ying Tsung was carried away by the Mongols in 1449 his brother Ching-Ti was made Emperor. Though Ying Tsung was sent back in 1450, he was not able to oust Ching-Ti from the throne till 1457.]

[Footnote 696: [Chinese: ], [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 697: [Chinese: ] His real name was Wang Shou Jên [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 698: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 699: Though the ecclesiastical study of Sanskrit decayed under the Ming dynasty, Yung-lo founded in 1407 a school of language for training interpreters at which Sanskrit was taught among other tongues.]

[Footnote 700: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 701: [Chinese: ]]

[Footnote 702: De Groot, _l.c._ p. 93.]