Reading section 7

“If the one existed, the other could only seem to exist; if they lived in the one they could not live in the other. Their existence on earth was to them a problem, their eternal life a certainty. The highest object of their religion was to restore that bond by which their own self (_átman_) was linked to the eternal self (_paramátman_); to recover that unity which had been clouded and obscured by the magical illusions of reality, by the so-called _Máyá_ of creation.”

“It scarcely entered their mind to doubt or to affirm the immortality of the soul (_pretya-bháva_). Not only their religion and literature, but their very language reminded them daily of that relation between the real and seeming world.” (Hist A. S. Lit. p. 18). In the view of Max Müller as quoted above, the Hindu mind would seem to be of that realistic cast as the Platonic, whose theory of Ontology viewed all existence as mere phantoms and _precepta_ of sense, and very short of that perfection, which the mind realizes in its meditation or _Yoga_ reveries.

The Hindu Yogi views the visible world exactly in the same light as we have said before, that Plato has represented it in the simile commencing the seventh book of his Republic. “He compares mankind to prisoners in a cave, chained in one particular attitude, so as to behold only an ever-varying multiplicity of shadows, projected through the opening of the cave upon the wall before them, by some unseen realities behind. The philosopher alone, who by training or inspiration, is enabled to turn his face from these visions, and contemplate with his mind, that can at once see the unchangeable reality amidst these transient shadows”, Baine on Realism pp. 6 and 7.

V. VARIOUS SIGNIFICATIONS OF YOGA.

The Váchaspati lexicon gives us about fifty different meanings of the word _Yoga_, according to the several branches of art or science to which it appertains, and the multifarious affairs of life in which the word is used either singly or in composition with others. We shall give some of them below, in order to prevent our mistaking any one of these senses for the special signification which the term is made to bear in our system of _Yoga_ meditation.

The word _Yoga_ from the root “_jung_” (Lat.) _Jungere_ means the joining of any two things or numbers together. Amara Kosha gives five different meanings of it as, संयोगे मेलने ध्याने धारने उपायेच; the other Koshas give five others, _viz._, भैषज्ये देह स्थैर्ये कर्म्मकौशले विश्वासघातकेच ।

1. In Arithmetic it is अङ्क योग or addition, and योग बिभाग is addition and subtraction. 2. In Astronomy the conjunction of planets and stars ग्रहनक्षत्रादि संयोगः 3. In Grammar it is the joining of letters and words सन्धिः समासः । 4. In Nyáya it means the power of the parts taken together अबयब शक्तिः, तर्क दीपिका । 5. In Mímánsa it is defined to be the force conveyed by the united members of a sentence.

In contemplative philosophy it means; 1. According to Pátanjali,—the suppression of mental functions चित्तवृत्ति निरोधः । 2. The Buddhists mean by it—the abstraction of the mind from all objects. सर्ब्बबिषयेभ्यः चित्तनिबृत्ति निरोधः । 3. The Vedanta meaning of it is—जीबात्मा परमात्मनोरैक्यं the union of the human soul with the Supreme spirit. 4. Its meaning in the _Yoga_ system is nearly the same, _i. e._, the joining of the vital spirit with the soul; संयोगं योगमित्याहुर्ज्जीबमात्मनोरिति । 5. Every process of meditation is called also as Yoga. योगाङ्ग योग उच्यते ।

Others again use it in senses adapted to their own views and subjects; such as the Vaiseshika philosophy uses it to mean, the fixing of the attention to only one subject by abstracting it from all others आत्मनो व्यावृत्त मनसः संयोगो योग उच्यते । 2. The Rámánuja sect define it as the seeking of one’s particular Deity स्वस्व देवतानु सन्धानमिति रामानुजाः ।

In this sense all sectarian cults are accounted as so many kinds of Yogas by their respective votaries. 3. According to some Buddhists it is the seeking of one’s object of desire अप्राप्तस्यार्थस्य प्राप्तये पर्यानुयोगः । 4. And with others, it is a search after every desirable object. 5. In Rhetoric it means the union of lovers कामुक कामिनी सम्मेलनं ।

In Medicine it means the compounding of drugs under which head there are many works that are at first sight mistaken for Yoga philosophy. Again there are many compound words with _Yoga_ which mean only “a treatise” on those subjects, such as, works on wisdom, on Acts, on Faith &c., are called ज्ञान योग, क्रिया योग, भक्त्ति योग इत्यादि । .

Moreover the words _Yoga_ and _Viyoga_ are used to express the two processes of synthesis and analysis both in the abstract and practical sciences for the combination and disjoining of ideas and things.

VI. THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF YOGA.

The constituent parts and progressive steps of Yoga, are composed of a series of bodily, mental and spiritual practices, the proper exercise of which conduces to the making of a perfect man, as a moral, intellectual and spiritual being, to be united to his Maker in the present and future worlds. These are called the eight stages of _Yoga_ (अष्टाङ्ग योग), of which some are external (बहिरङ्ग) and others internal (अन्तरङ्गानि). The external ones are:

_1st._ _Yama_ (यम); Forbearance or restraint of passions, feelings &c., including the best moral rules in all religions.

_2nd._ _Niyama_ (नियम ); Particular rules and vows for the observance of the _Yogi_.

_3rd._ _Asana_ (आसन); sedate position of the body to help deep meditation.

_4th._ Pránáyáma (प्राणायाम); Suppression and suspension of breath.

_5th._ Pratyáhára (प्रत्याहार), Restraint or control of senses and organs.

Among the internal practices are reckoned the following; _viz._;

_6th._ _Dhyána_ (ध्यान); Inward contemplation and meditation.

_7th._ _Dháraná_ (धारणा); Steadiness of the mind in study.

_8th._ _Samádhi_ (समाधि), Trance, the last stage of _Yoga_.

These again comprise some other acts under each of them, such as;

I. _Yama_ (समयम) Restraint includes five acts under it;

_1st._ _Ahimsá_ (अहिंसा); Universal innocence or hurting no animal creature.

_2nd._ _Asteyam_ (अस्तेयं); Avoidance of theft or stealth.

_3rd._ _Satyam_ (सत्यं); Observance of truth.

_4th._ _Brahmacharyam_ (ब्रह्मचर्यं); consisting in purity and chastity.

_5th._ _Aparigraha_ (अपरिग्रह); Disinterestedness.

II. _Niyama_ (नियम पञ्चधा); Moral rules consisting of five-fold acts. _Viz._;

_1st._ _Saucham_ (शौचं); Personal cleanliness.

_2nd._ _Santosha_ (सन्तोषः); contentment.

_3rd._ _Tapas_ (तपस्); Devotion including self denial and self mortification.

_4th._ _Sádhyáya_ (साध्याय); knowledge of all nature.

_5th._ _Pranidhána_ (ईश्वर प्रनिधानं); Adoration of God.

III. _Asana_ (आसन); Different modes of postures, tranquil posture (पद्मासन) &c.

IV. _Pránáyáma_ (प्राणायामः); Rules of Respiration, three sorts, viz.;

_1st._ _Rechaka_ (रेचकं); Expiration or Exhalation.

_2nd._ _Púraka_ (पूरकं); Inspiration or Inhalation.

_3rd._ _Kumbhaka_ (कुम्भकं अष्टधा); Suppression of breathing, eight ways.

V. _Pratyáhára_ (प्रत्याहारः इन्द्रिय निग्रहः) Restraining the senses from their gratifications in many ways.

VI. _Dhyána_ (ध्यान चित्तनिरोधः); Abstract contemplation, apart from the testimonies of:—

1. Pratyaxa (प्रत्यक्ष); Perceptions. 2. Pramána (प्रमाणं); Apprehensions. 3. Anumána (अनुमान); Inference. 4. Sabda (शब्दः); Verbal testimony.

VII. _Dháraná_ (धारणा); Retentiveness.

VIII. _Samádhi_ (समाधि); Absorption in meditation, in two ways; 1. _Savikalpa_ (सबिकल्पः); With retention of self volition. 2. _Nirvikalpa_ (निर्बिकल्पः); _With loss of volition._

The Upáyas (उपायाः); Or the means spoken of before are;

1. _Uposhana_ (उपोषणं); Abstinence. 2. _Mitásana_ (मिताशनं); Temperance. 3. _Ásrama_ (आश्रमः); Sheltered abodes. 4. _Visráma_ (बिश्रामः) Rest and repose from labor. 5. _Avarodha_ (अबरोधः); Self confinement in closets. 6. _Asanam_ (अशनं); _Subsistence on light food._

Beside these there are many vices called _Apáyas_ or _dóshas_ (अपायादोषाः) which are obstacles to meditation, and which we omit on account of their prolixity.

VII. NATURE OF THE SOUL.

Now as the end and aim of _Yoga_ is the emancipation of the Soul, it is necessary to give some account of the nature of the soul (_átmatatwa_) as far as it was known to the sages of India, and formed the primary subject of inquiry with the wise men of every country according to the sayings; “_Gnothe seauton_,”

“_Nosce teipsum_,” “Know thyself”, “_Khodra bedan_,” and Arabic “_Taalam Nafsaka_,” आत्मानु सन्धीयताम् &c.

“The word Atman,” says Max Müller, “which in the Veda occurs as often as “_twan_,” meant life, particularly animal life” (Vide Rig Veda I. 63, 8.) _Atmá_ in the sense of _self_ occurs also in the Rig Veda (I. 162. 20), in the passage मात्वा-तपत् प्रिय आत्मापियन्तं. It is also found to be used in the higher sense of soul in the verse सूर्य्यो आत्मा जगतस्तष्टूषश्च “The sun is the soul of all that moves and rests (R. I. 115. 1). The highest soul is called _paramátman_ (परमात्मा) of which all other souls partake, from which all reality in this created world emanates, and into which every thing will return.”

_Atman_ originally meant air as the Greek _atmos_, Gothic _ahma_, Zend _tmánam_, Sanscrit त्मानं and आत्मानं, Cuniform _adam_, Persian _dam_, whence we derive Sans. अहं Hindi हम् Uria and Prakrit अमू and Bengali आमि, मुइ &c. The Greek and Latin _ego_ and German _ich_ are all derived from the same source. The Romance _je_ and Hindi _ji_ are corruptions of Sanskrit जीब meaning life and spirit. Again the Páli अत्ता and the Prakrit आप्पा is from the Sanscrit आत्मा, which is आप् in Hindi, आपन in Bengali and अप्पन in Uria &c. The Persian “_man_” is evidently the _Sátman_ by elision of the initial syllable.

These meanings of _átman_ = the self and _ego_ form the basis of the knowledge of the Divine soul both of the Hindu as of any other people, who from the consciousness of their own selves rise to that of the Supreme. Thus says Max Müller on the subject, “A Hindu speaking of himself आत्मन् spoke also, though unconsciously of the soul of the universe परमात्मन्, and to know himself, was to him to know both his own self and the Universal soul, or to know himself in the Divine self.”

We give below the different lights in which the Divine soul was viewed by the different schools of Hindu philosophy, and adopted accordingly in their respective modes of Yoga meditation. The Upanishads called it Brahma of eternal and infinite wisdom नित्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म ।

The Vedantists;—A Being full of intelligence and blissfulness सच्चिदानन्द स्वरूपं ।

The Sánkaras;—A continued consciousness of one self. सनित्योपलब्धि स्वरूपोऽहमात्मा । The doctrine of Descartes and Malebranche.

The Materialists—convert the soul to all material forms देहमात्रमिति प्रकृत्यः ।

The Lokáyatas—take the body with intelligence to be the soul; चैतन्यबिशिष्टः देहमात्मां ।