Reading section 98

11 One of the most prominent objects of worship in the Rig-veda, Indra was superseded in later times by the more popular deities Vishṇu and Śiva. He is the God of the firmament, and answers in many respects to the Jupiter Pluvius of the Romans. See _Additional Notes_.

12 The second God of the Trimúrti or Indian Trinity. Derived from the root _viś_ to penetrate, the meaning of the name appears to be _he who penetrates or pervades all things_. An embodiment of the preserving power of nature, he is worshipped as a Saviour who has nine times been incarnate for the good of the world and will descend on earth once more. See _Additional Notes_ and Muir’s Sanskrit Texts _passim_.

13 In Sanskrit _devarshi_. Rishi is the general appellation of sages, and another word is frequently prefixed to distinguish the degrees. A _Brahmarshi_ is a theologian or Bráhmanical sage; a Rájarshi is a royal sage or sainted king; a _Devarshi_ is a divine or deified sage or saint.

_ 14 Trikálajǹa_. Literally _knower of the three times_. Both Schlegel and Gorresio quote Homer’s.

Ὅς ἤδη τ’ ἐόντα, τά τ’ ἐσσόμενα, πρό τ’ ἐόντα.

“That sacred seer, whose comprehensive view, The past, the present, and the future knew.”

The Bombay edition reads _trilokajǹa,_ _who knows the three worlds_ (earth, air and heaven.) “It is by _tapas_ (austere fervour) that rishis of subdued souls, subsisting on roots, fruits and air, obtain a vision of the three worlds with all things moving and stationary.” MANU, XI. 236.

15 Son of Manu, the first king of Kośala and founder of the solar dynasty or family of the Children of the Sun, the God of that luminary being the father of Manu.

16 The Indians paid great attention to the art of physiognomy and believed that character and fortune could be foretold not from the face only but from marks upon the neck and hands. Three lines under the chin like those at the mouth of a conch (_Śańkha_) were regarded as a peculiarly auspicious sign indicating, as did also the mark of Vishṇu’s discus on the hand, one born to be a _chakravartin_ or universal emperor. In the palmistry of Europe the line of fortune, as well as the line of life, is in the hand. Cardan says that marks on the nails and teeth also show what is to happen to us: “Sunt etiam in nobis vestigia quædam futurorum eventuum in unguibus atque etiam in dentibus.” Though the palmy days of Indian chiromancy have passed away, the art is still to some extent studied and believed in.

17 Long arms were regarded as a sign of heroic strength.

18 “Veda means originally knowing or knowledge, and this name is given by the Bráhmans not to one work, but to the whole body of their most ancient sacred literature. Veda is the same word which appears in the Greek οίδα, I know, and in the English wise, wisdom, to wit. The name of Veda is commonly given to four collections of hymns, which are respectively known by the names of Rig-veda, Yajur-veda, Sáma-veda, and Atharva-veda.”

“As the language of the Veda, the Sanskrit, is the most ancient type of the English of the present day, (Sanskrit and English are but varieties of one and the same language,) so its thoughts and feelings contain in reality the first roots and germs of that intellectual growth which by an unbroken chain connects our own generation with the ancestors of the Aryan race,—with those very people who at the rising and setting of the sun listened with trembling hearts to the songs of the Veda, that told them of bright powers above, and of a life to come after the sun of their own lives had set in the clouds of the evening. These men were the true ancestors of our race, and the Veda is the oldest book we have in which to study the first beginnings of our language, and of all that is embodied in language. We are by nature Aryan, Indo-European, not Semitic: our spiritual kith and kin are to be found in India, Persia, Greece, Italy, Germany: not in Mesopotamia, Egypt, or Palestine.”

_Chips from a German Workshop_, Vol. I. pp. 8. 4.

19 As with the ancient Persians and Scythians, Indian princes were carefully instructed in archery which stands for military science in general, of which, among Hindu heroes, it was the most important branch.

20 Chief of the three queens of Daśaratha and mother of Ráma.

21 From _hima_ snow, (Greek χειμ-ών, Latin hiems) and _álaya_ abode, the Mansion of snow.

22 The moon (_Soma_, _Indu_, _Chandra_ _etc._) is masculine with the Indians as with the Germans.

23 Kuvera, the Indian Plutus, or God of Wealth.

24 The events here briefly mentioned will be related fully in the course of the poem. The first four cantos are introductory, and are evidently the work of a later hand than Valmiki’s.

25 “Chandra, or the Moon, is fabled to have been married to the twenty-seven daughters of the patriarch Daksha, or Aśviní and the rest, who are in fact personifications of the Lunar Asterisms. His favourite amongst them was Rohiṇí to whom he so wholly devoted himself as to neglect the rest. They complained to their father, and Daksha repeatedly interposed, till, finding his remonstrances vain, he denounced a curse upon his son-in-law, in consequence of which he remained childless and became affected by consumption. The wives of Chandra having interceded in his behalf with their father, Daksha modified an imprecation which he could not recall, and pronounced that the decay should be periodical only, not permanent, and that it should alternate with periods of recovery. Hence the successive wane and increase of the Moon. _Padma_, _Puráṇa_, _Swarga-Khaṇḍa,_ Sec. II. _Rohiṇí_ in Astronomy is the fourth lunar mansion, containing five stars, the principal of which is Aldebaran.” WILSON, _Specimens of the Hindu Theatre. Vol. I. p._ 234.

The Bengal recension has a different reading:

“Shone with her husband like the light Attendant on the Lord of Night.”

26 The garb prescribed for ascetics by Manu.

27 “Mount Meru, situated like Kailása in the lofty regions to the north of the Himálayas, is celebrated in the traditions and myths of India. Meru and Kailása are the two Indian Olympi. Perhaps they were held in such veneration because the Sanskrit-speaking Indians remembered the ancient home where they dwelt with the other primitive peoples of their family before they descended to occupy the vast plains which extend between the Indus and the Ganges.” GORRESIO.

28 The third God of the Indian Triad, the God of destruction and reproduction. See _Additional Notes_.

29 The epithet _dwija_, or _twice-born_, is usually appropriate to Bráhmans, but is applicable to the three higher castes. Investiture with the sacred thread and initiation of the neophyte into certain religious mysteries are regarded as his regeneration or second birth.

30 His shoes to be a memorial of the absent heir and to maintain his right. Kálidása (Raghuvaṅśa, XII. 17.) says that they were to be _adhidevate_ or guardian deities of the kingdom.

31 Jaṭáyu, a semi-divine bird, the friend of Ráma, who fought in defence of Sítá.

32 Raghu was one of the most celebrated ancestors of Ráma whose commonest appellation is, therefore, Rághava or descendant of Raghu. Kálidása in the _Raghuraṇśa_ makes him the son of Dilípa and great-grandfather of Ráma. See _Idylls from the Sanskrit_, “Aja” and “Dilípa.”

33 Dundhubi.

34 Literally _ten yojanas_. The yojana is a measure of uncertain length variously reckoned as equal to nine miles, five, and a little less.

35 Ceylon.

36 The Jonesia Aśoka is a most beautiful tree bearing a profusion of red blossoms.

_ 37 Brahmá_, the Creator, is usually regarded as the first God of the Indian Trinity, although, as Kálidása says:

“Of Brahmá, Vishṇu, Śiva, each may be First, second, third, amid the blessed Three.”

Brahmá had guaranteed Rávaṇ’s life against all enemies except man.

38 Ocean personified.

39 The rocks lying between Ceylon and the mainland are still called Ráma’s Bridge by the Hindus.

40 “The Bráhmans, with a system rather cosmogonical than chronological, divide the present mundane period into four ages or _yugas_ as they call them: the Krita, the Tretá, the Dwápara, and the Kali. The Krita, called also the Deva-yuga or that of the Gods, is the age of truth, the perfect age, the Tretá is the age of the three sacred fires, domestic and sacrificial; the Dwápara is the age of doubt; the Kali, the present age, is the age of evil.” GORRESIO.

41 The ancient kings of India enjoyed lives of more than patriarchal length as will appear in the course of the poem.

42 Śúdras, men of the fourth and lowest pure caste, were not allowed to read the poem, but might hear it recited.

43 The three _ślokes_ or distichs which these twelve lines represent are evidently a still later and very awkward addition to the introduction.

44 There are several rivers in India of this name, now corrupted into _Tonse_. The river here spoken of is that which falls into the Ganges a little below Allahabad.

45 “In Book II, Canto LIV, we meet with a saint of this name presiding over a convent of disciples in his hermitage at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna. Thence the later author of these introductory cantos has borrowed the name and person, inconsistently indeed, but with the intention of enhancing the dignity of the poet by ascribing to him so celebrated a disciple.” SCHLEGEL.

46 The poet plays upon the similarity in sound of the two words: _śoka_, means grief, _śloka_, the heroic measure in which the poem is composed. It need scarcely be said that the derivation is fanciful.

47 Brahmá, the Creator, is usually regarded as the first person of the divine triad of India. The four heads with which he is represented are supposed to have allusion to the four corners of the earth which he is sometimes considered to personify. As an object of adoration Brahmá has been entirely superseded by Śiva and Vishṇu. In the whole of India there is, I believe, but one temple dedicated to his worship. In this point the first of the Indian triad curiously resembles the last of the divine fraternity of Greece, Aïdes the brother of Zeus and Poseidon. “In all Greece, says Pausanias, there is no single temple of Aïdes, except at a single spot in Elis.” See Gladstone’s Juventus Mundi, p. 253.

48 The _argha_ or _arghya_ was a libation or offering to a deity, a Bráhman, or other venerable personage. According to one authority it consisted of water, milk, the points of Kúsa-grass, curds, clarified butter, rice, barley, and white mustard, according to another, of saffron, bel, unbroken grain, flowers, curds, dúrbá-grass, kúsa-grass, and sesamum.

49 Sítá, daughter of Janak king of Míthilá.

50 “I congratulate myself,” says Schlegel in the preface to his, alas, unfinished edition of the Rámáyan, “that, by the favour of the Supreme Deity, I have been allowed to begin so great a work; I glory and make my boast that I too after so many ages have helped to confirm that ancient oracle declared to Válmíki by the Father of Gods and men:

Dum stabunt montes, campis dum flumina current, Usque tuum toto carmen celebrabitur orbe.”

51 “The sipping of water is a requisite introduction of all rites: without it, says the Sámha Purána, all acts of religion are vain.” COLEBROOKE.

52 The _darhha_ or _kuśa_ (Pea cynosuroides), a kind of grass used in sacrifice by the Hindus as _cerbena_ was by the Romans.

53 The direction in which the grass should be placed upon the ground as a seat for the Gods, on occasion of offerings made to them.

54 Paraśuráma or Ráma with the Axe. See Canto LXXIV.

55 Sítá. Videha was the country of which Míthilá was the capital.

56 The twin sons of Ráma and Sítá, born after Ráma had repudiated Sítá, and brought up in the hermitage of Válmíki. As they were the first rhapsodists the combined name Kuśílava signifies a reciter of poems, or an improvisatore, even to the present day.

57 Perhaps the bass, tenor, and treble, or quick, slow and middle times. we know but little of the ancient music of the Hindus.

58 Eight flavours or sentiments are usually enumerated, love, mirth, tenderness, anger, heroism, terror, disgust, and surprise; tranquility or content, or paternal tenderness, is sometimes considered the ninth. WILSON. See the _Sáhitya Darpaṇa_ or _Mirror of Composition_ translated by Dr. Ballantyne and Bábú Pramadádása Mittra in the _Bibliotheca Indica._

59 Saccharum Munja is a plant from whose fibres is twisted the sacred string which a Bráhman wears over one shoulder after he has been initiated by a rite which in some respects answers to confirmation.

60 A description of an Aśvamedha or Horse Sacrifice is given in Canto XIII. of this Book.