Reading section 24

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[Footnote 1: _Dravyasa@mgraha_, S'I. 29.]

[Footnote 2: Nemicandra's commentary on _Dravyasa@mgraha_, S'I. 29, edited by S.C. Ghoshal, Arrah, 1917.]

[Footnote 3: See Nemicandra's commentary on S'I. 30.]

[Footnote 4: Nemicandra on 31, and _Vardhamânapurâ@na_ XVI. 44, quoted by Ghoshal.]

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of dust on the body of a person who is besmeared all over with oil. Thus Gunaratna says "The influx of karma means the contact of the particles of karma matter, in accordance with the particular kind of karma, with the soul just like the sticking of dust on the body of a person besmeared with oil. In all parts of the soul there being infinite number of karma atoms it becomes so completely covered with them that in some sense when looked at from that point of view the soul is sometimes regarded as a material body during its sa@msâra stage [Footnote ref 1]." From one point of view the bondage of karma is only of _puf@nya_ and _pâpa_ (good and bad karmas) [Footnote ref 2]. From another this bondage is of four kinds, according to the nature of karma (_prak@rti_) duration of bondage (_sthiti_), intensity (_anubhâga_) and extension (_prades'a_). The nature of karma refers to the eight classes of karma already mentioned, namely the jñanavaraniya karma which obscures the infinite knowledge of the soul of all things in detail, dars'anâvara@nîya karma which obscures the infinite general knowledge of the soul, vedanîya karma which produces the feelings of pleasure and pain in the soul, mohanîya karma, which so infatuates souls that they fail to distinguish what is right from what is wrong, âyu karma, which determines the tenure of any particular life, nâma karma which gives them personalities, gotra karma which brings about a particular kind of social surrounding for the soul and antaraya karma which tends to oppose the performance of right actions by the soul. The duration of the stay of any karma in the soul is called sthiti. Again a karma may be intense, middling or mild, and this indicates the third principle of division, anubhâga. Prades'a refers to the different parts of the soul to which the karma particles attach themselves. The duration of stay of any karma and its varying intensity are due to the nature of the kasayas or passions of the soul, whereas the different classification of karmas as jñânâvaranîya, etc., are due to the nature of specific contact of the soul with karma matter [Footnote ref 3].

Corresponding to the two modes of inrush of karmas (bhâvâsrava and dravyâsrava) are two kinds of control opposing this inrush, by actual thought modification of a contrary nature and by the actual stoppage of the inrush of karma particles, and these are respectively called bhâvasa@mvara and dravyasa@mvara [Footnote ref 4].

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[Footnote 1: See Gu@naratna, p. 181]

[Footnote 2: _Ibid_.]

[Footnote 3: Nemicandra, 33.]

[Footnote 4: _Varddhamâ@na_ XVI 67-68, and _Dravyasa@mgrahav@rtti_ S'I. 35.]

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The bhâvasa@mvaras are (1) the vows of non-injury, truthfulness, abstinence from stealing, sex-control, and non-acceptance of objects of desire, (2) samitis consisting of the use of trodden tracks in order to avoid injury to insects (_îryâ_), gentle and holy talk (_bhâ@sa_), receiving proper alms (_e@sa@nâ_), etc, (3) _guptis_ or restraints of body, speech and mind, (4) _dharmas_ consisting of habits of forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, truth, cleanliness, restraint, penance, abandonment indifference to any kind of gain or loss, and supreme sex-control [Footnote ref 1], (5) _anuprek@sâ_ consisting of meditation about the transient character of the world, about our helplessness without the truth, about the cycles of world-existence, about our own responsibilities for our good and bad actions, about the difference between the soul and the non-soul, about the uncleanliness of our body and all that is associated with it, about the influx of karma and its stoppage and the destruction of those karmas which have already entered the soul, about soul, matter and the substance of the universe, about the difficulty of attaining true knowledge, faith and conduct, and about the essential principles of the world [Footnote ref 2], (6) the _parî@sahajaya_ consisting of the conquering of all kinds of physical troubles of heat, cold, etc, and of feelings of discomforts of various kinds, (7) _câritra_ or right conduct.

Next to this we come to nirjarâ or the purging off of the karmas or rather their destruction. This nirjarâ also is of two kinds bhâvanirjarâ and dravyanirjarâ. Bhâvanirjarâ means that change in the soul by virtue of which the karma particles are destroyed. Dravyanirjarâ means the actual destruction of these karma particles either by the reaping of their effects or by penances before their time of fruition, called savipâka and avipâka nirjarâs respectively. When all the karmas are destroyed mok@sa or liberation is effected.

Pudgala.

The _ajîva_ (non-living) is divided into _pudgalâstikâya, dharmastikâya, adharmâstikâya, âkâs'âstikâya, kâla, pu@nya, pâpa_. The word _pudgala_ means matter [Footnote ref 3], and it is called _astikâya_ in the sense that it occupies space. Pudgala is made up of atoms

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[Footnote 1: _Tattvârthâdhigamasûtra_.]

[Footnote 2: _Ibid_.]

[Footnote 3: This is entirely different from the Buddhist sense. With the Buddhists _pudgala_ means an individual or a person.]

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which are without size and eternal. Matter may exist in two states, gross (such as things we see around us), and subtle (such as the karma matter which sullies the soul). All material things are ultimately produced by the combination of atoms. The smallest indivisible particle of matter is called an atom (_a@nu_). The atoms are all eternal and they all have touch, taste, smell, and colour. The formation of different substances is due to the different geometrical, spherical or cubical modes of the combination of the atoms, to the diverse modes of their inner arrangement and to the existence of different degrees of inter-atomic space (_ghanapratarabhedena_). Some combinations take place by simple mutual contact at two points (_yugmaprades'a_) whereas in others the atoms are only held together by the points of attractive force (_oja@hprades'a_) (_Prajñâpanopâ@ngasûtra_, pp. 10-12). Two atoms form a compound (_skandha_), when the one is viscous and the other dry or both are of different degrees of viscosity or dryness. It must be noted that while the Buddhists thought that there was no actual contact between the atoms the Jains regarded the contact as essential and as testified by experience. These compounds combine with other compounds and thus produce the gross things of the world. There are, however, liable to constant change (_pari@nâma_) by which they lose some of their old qualities (_gu@nas_) and acquire new ones. There are four elements, earth, water, air, and fire, and the atoms of all these are alike in character. The perception of grossness however is not an error which is imposed upon the perception of the atoms by our mind (as the Buddhists think) nor is it due to the perception of atoms scattered spatially lengthwise and breadthwise (as the Sâ@mkhya-Yoga supposes), but it is due to the accession of a similar property of grossness, blueness or hardness in the combined atoms, so that such knowledge is generated in us as is given in the perception of a gross, blue, or a hard thing. When a thing appears as blue, what happens is this, that the atoms there have all acquired the property of blueness and on the removal of the dars'anavara@nîya and jñânavara@nîya veil, there arises in the soul the perception and knowledge of that blue thing. This sameness (_samâna-rûpatâ_) of the accession of a quality in an aggregate of atoms by virtue of which it appears as one object (e.g. a cow) is technically called _tiryaksâmânya_. This sâmânya or generality is thus neither an imposition of the mind nor an abstract entity

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(as maintained by the Naiyâyikas) but represents only the accession of similar qualities by a similar development of qualities of atoms forming an aggregate. So long as this similarity of qualities continues we perceive the thing to be the same and to continue for some length of time. When we think of a thing to be permanent, we do so by referring to this sameness in the developing tendencies of an aggregate of atoms resulting in the relative permanence of similar qualities in them. According to the Jains things are not momentary and in spite of the loss of some old qualities and the accession of other ones, the thing as a whole may remain more or less the same for some time. This sameness of qualities in time is technically called _ûrdhvasâmânya_ [Footnote ref 1]. If the atoms are looked at from the point of view of the change and accession of new qualities, they may be regarded as liable to destruction, but if they are looked at from the point of view of substance (_dravya_) they are eternal.

Dharma, Adharma, Âkâs'a.

The conception of dharma and adharma in Jainism is absolutely different from what they mean in other systems of Indian philosophy. Dharma is devoid of taste, touch, smell, sound and colour; it is conterminous with the mundane universe (_lokâkâs'a_) and pervades every part of it. The term _astikâya_ is therefore applied to it. It is the principle of motion, the accompanying circumstance or cause which makes motion possible, like water to a moving fish. The water is a passive condition or circumstance of the movement of a fish, i.e. it is indifferent or passive (_udâsîna_) and not an active or solicitous (_preraka_) cause. The water cannot compel a fish at rest to move; but if the fish wants to move, water is then the necessary help to its motion. Dharma cannot make the soul or matter move; but if they are to move, they cannot do so without the presence of dharma. Hence at the extremity of the mundane world (_loka_) in the region of the liberated souls, there being no dharma, the liberated souls attain perfect rest. They cannot move there because there is not the necessary motion-element, dharma [Footnote ref 2]. Adharma is also regarded as a similar pervasive entity which

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[Footnote 1: See _Prameyakamalamârta@n@da_, pp. 136-143; _Jainatarkavârttika_, p. 106.]

[Footnote 2: _Dravyasa@mgrahav@rtti_, 17-20.]

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helps jîvas and pudgalas to keep themselves at rest. No substance could move if there were no dharma, or could remain at rest if there were no adharma. The necessity of admitting these two categories seems probably to have been felt by the Jains on account of their notion that the inner activity of the jîva or the atoms required for its exterior realization the help of some other extraneous entity, without which this could not have been transformed into actual exterior motion. Moreover since the jîvas were regarded as having activity inherent in them they would be found to be moving even at the time of liberation (moksa), which was undesirable; thus it was conceived that actual motion required for its fulfilment the help of an extraneous entity which was absent in the region of the liberated souls.

The category of âkâs'a is that subtle entity which pervades the mundane universe (_loka_) and the transcendent region of liberated souls (_aloka_) which allows the subsistence of all other substances such as dharma, adharma, jîva, pudgala. It is not a mere negation and absence of veil or obstruction, or mere emptiness, but a positive entity which helps other things to interpenetrate it. On account of its pervasive character it is called _âkâs'âstikâya_ [Footnote ref 1].

Kâla and Samaya.

Time (_kâla_) in reality consists of those innumerable particles which never mix with one another, but which help the happening of the modification or accession of new qualities and the change of qualities of the atoms. Kâla does not bring about the changes of qualities, in things, but just as âkas'a helps interpenetration and dharma motion, so also kâla helps the action of the transformation of new qualities in things. Time perceived as moments, hours, days, etc., is called _samaya_. This is the appearance of the unchangeable kâla in so many forms. Kâla thus not only aids the modifications of other things, but also allows its own modifications as moments, hours, etc. It is thus a dravya (substance), and the moments, hours, etc., are its paryâyas. The unit of samaya is the time required by an atom to traverse a unit of space by a slow movement.

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[Footnote 1: _Dravyasamgrahav@rtti_, 19.]

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Jaina Cosmography.

According to the Jains, the world is eternal, without beginning or end. Loka is that place in which happiness and misery are experienced as results of virtue and vice. It is composed of three parts, _ûrdhva_ (where the gods reside), _madhya_ (this world of ours), and _adho_ (where the denizens of hell reside). The mundane universe (_lokâkas'a_) is pervaded with dharma which makes all movement possible. Beyond the lokâkas'a there is no dharma and therefore no movement, but only space (_âkas'a_). Surrounding this lokakâs'a are three layers of air. The perfected soul rising straight over the ûrdhvaloka goes to the top of this lokakâs'a and (there being no dharma) remains motionless there.

Jaina Yoga.

Yoga according to Jainism is the cause of moksa (salvation). This yoga consists of jñana (knowledge of reality as it is), s'raddhâ (faith in the teachings of the Jinas), and caritra (cessation from doing all that is evil). This caritra consists of _ahi@msâ_ (not taking any life even by mistake or unmindfulness), _sûn@rta_ (speaking in such a way as is true, good and pleasing), _asteya_ (not taking anything which has not been given), brahmacaryya (abandoning lust foi all kinds of objects, in mind, speech and body), and _aparigraha_ (abandoning attachment for all things) [Footnote ref 1].

These strict rules of conduct only apply to ascetics who are bent on attaining perfection. The standard proposed for the ordinary householders is fairly workable. Thus it is said by Hemacandra, that ordinary householders should earn money honestly, should follow the customs of good people, should marry a good girl from a good family, should follow the customs of the country and so forth. These are just what we should expect from any good and

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[Footnote 1: Certain external rules of conduct are also called caritra. These are: _Îryyâ_ (to go by the path already trodden by others and illuminated by the sun's rays, so that proper precaution may be taken while walking to prevent oneself from treading on insects, etc., which may be lying on the way), _bhasâ_ (to speak well and pleasantly to all beings), _isana_ (to beg alms in the proper monastic manner), _dânasamiti_ (to inspect carefully the seats avoiding all transgressions when taking or giving anything), _utsargasamiti_ (to take care that bodily refuse may not be thrown in such a way as to injure any being), _manogupti_ (to remove all false thoughts, to remain satisfied within oneself, and hold all people to be the same in mind), _vâggupti_ (absolute silence), and _kâyagupti_ (absolute steadiness and fixity of the body). Five other kinds of caritra are counted in _Dravyasamgrahav@rtti_ 35.]

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honest householder of the present day. Great stress is laid upon the virtues of ahi@msâ, sûn@rta, asteya and brahmacaryya, but the root of all these is ahi@msâ. The virtues of sûn@rta, asteya and brahmacaryya are made to follow directly as secondary corrollaries of ahi@msâ. Ahi@msâ may thus be generalized as the fundamental ethical virtue of Jainism; judgment on all actions may be passed in accordance with the standard of ahi@msâ; sûn@rta, asteya and brahmacaryya are regarded as virtues as their transgression leads to hi@msâ (injury to beings). A milder form of the practice of these virtues is expected from ordinary householders and this is called anubrata (small vows). But those who are struggling for the attainment of emancipation must practise these virtues according to the highest and strictest standard, and this is called mahâbrata (great vows). Thus for example brahmacaryya for a householder according to the anubrata standard would be mere cessation from adultery, whereas according to mahâbrata it would be absolute abstention from sex-thoughts, sex-words and sex-acts. Ahi@msâ according to a householder, according to anubrata, would require abstinence from killing any animals, but according to mahavrata it would entail all the rigour and carefulness to prevent oneself from being the cause of any kind of injury to any living being in any way.

Many other minor duties are imposed upon householders, all of which are based upon the cardinal virtue of ahi@msâ. These are (1) _digvirati_ (to carry out activities within a restricted area and thereby desist from injuring living beings in different places), (2) _bhogopabhogamâna_ (to desist from drinking liquors, taking flesh, butter, honey, figs, certain other kinds of plants, fruits, and vegetables, to observe certain other kinds of restrictions regarding time and place of taking meals), (3) _anarthada@n@da_ consisting of (a) _apadhyâna_ (cessation from inflicting any bodily injuries, killing of one's enemies, etc.), (b) _pâpopades'a_ (desisting from advising people to take to agriculture which leads to the killing of so many insects), (c) _hi@msopakâridâna_ (desisting from giving implements of agriculture to people which will lead to the injury of insects), (d) _pramâdacara@na_ (to desist from attending musical parties, theatres, or reading sex-literature, gambling, etc.), (4) _s'ik@sâpadabrata_ consisting of (a) _sâmayikabrata_ (to try to treat all beings equally), (b) des'âvakâs'ikabrata (gradually to practise the _digviratibrata_ more and more extensively), (c) _po@sadhabrata_

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(certain other kinds of restriction), (d) _atithisa@mvibhâgabrata (to make gifts to guests). All transgressions of these virtues, called _aticâra_, should be carefully avoided.

All perception, wisdom, and morals belong to the soul, and to know the soul as possessing these is the right knowledge of the soul. All sorrows proceeding out of want of self-knowledge can be removed only by true self-knowledge. The soul in itself is pure intelligence, and it becomes endowed with the body only on account of its karma. When by meditation, all the karmas are burnt (_dhyânâgnidagdhakarma_) the self becomes purified. The soul is itself the sa@msâra (the cycle of rebirths) when it is overpowered by the four ka@sâyas (passions) and the senses. The four ka@sâyas are _krodha_ (anger), _mâna_ (vanity and pride), _mâyâ_ (insincerity and the tendency to dupe others), and _lobha_ (greed). These ka@sâyas cannot be removed except by a control of the senses; and self-control alone leads to the purity of the mind (_mana@hs'uddhi_). Without the control of the mind no one can proceed in the path of yoga. All our acts become controlled when the mind is controlled, so those who seek emancipation should make every effort to control the mind. No kind of asceticism (_tapas_) can be of any good until the mind is purified. All attachment and antipathy (_râgadvc@sa_) can be removed only by the purification of the mind. It is by attachment and antipathy that man loses his independence. It is thus necessary for the yogin (sage) that he should be free from them and become independent in the real sense of the term When a man learns to look upon all beings with equality (_samatva_) he can effect such a conquest over râga and dve@sa as one could never do even by the strictest asceticism through millions of years. In order to effect this samatva towards all, we should take to the following kinds of meditation (_bhâvanâ_):

We should think of the transitoriness (_anityatâ_) of all things, that what a thing was in the morning, it is not at mid-day, what it was at mid-day it is not at night; for all things are transitory and changing. Our body, all our objects of pleasure, wealth and youth all are fleeting like dreams, or cotton particles in a whirlwind.

All, even the gods, are subject to death. All our relatives will by their works fall a prey to death. This world is thus full of misery and there is nothing which can support us in it. Thus in

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whatever way we look for anything, on which we can depend, we find that it fails us. This is called as'ara@nabhâvanâ (the meditation of helplessness).

Some are born in this world, some suffer, some reap the fruits of the karma done in another life. We are all different from one another by our surroundings, karma, by our separate bodies and by all other gifts which each of us severally enjoy. To meditate on these aspects is called ekatvabhâvanâ and anyatvabhâvanâ.

To think that the body is made up of defiled things, the flesh, blood, and bones, and is therefore impure is called as'ucibhâvanâ (meditation of the impurity of the body).

To think that if the mind is purified by the thoughts of universal friendship and compassion and the passions are removed, then only will good {_s'ubha_) accrue to me, but if on the contrary I commit sinful deeds and transgress the virtues, then all evil will befall me, is called âsravabhâvanâ (meditation of the befalling of evil). By the control of the âsrava (inrush of karma) comes the sa@mvara (cessation of the influx of karma) and the destruction of the karmas already accumulated leads to nîrjarâ (decay and destruction of karma matter).

Again one should think that the practice of the ten dharmas (virtues) of self control (_sa@myama_), truthfulness (_sûn@rta_), purity (_s'auca_), chastity (_brahma_), absolute want of greed (_akiñcanatâ_), asceticism (_tapas_), forbearance, patience (_ks'ânti_), mildness (_mârdava_), sincerity (_@rjutâ_), and freedom or emancipation from all sins (_mukti_} can alone help us in the achievement of the highest goal. These are the only supports to which we can look. It is these which uphold the world-order. This is called dharmasvâkhyâtatâbhâvanâ.